The tattooed right hand of a Chiribaya mummy The tattooed right hand of a Chiribaya mummy is displayed at El Algarrobal Museum.

Joann Fletcher

Tattoos

The Ancient and Mysterious History

  • By Cate Lineberry
  • Smithsonian.com, January 01, 2007

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    mummified head of a woman from the pre-Inca Chiribaya culture

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    Humans have marked their bodies with tattoos for thousands of years. These permanent designs—sometimes plain, sometimes elaborate, always personal—have served as amulets, status symbols, declarations of love, signs of religious beliefs, adornments and even forms of punishment. Joann Fletcher, research fellow in the department of archaeology at the University of York in Britain, describes the history of tattoos and their cultural significance to people around the world, from the famous " Iceman," a 5,200-year-old frozen mummy, to today’s Maori.

    What is the earliest evidence of tattoos?

    In terms of tattoos on actual bodies, the earliest known examples were for a long time Egyptian and were present on several female mummies dated to c. 2000 B.C. But following the more recent discovery of the Iceman from the area of the Italian-Austrian border in 1991 and his tattoo patterns, this date has been pushed back a further thousand years when he was carbon-dated at around 5,200 years old.

    Can you describe the tattoos on the Iceman and their significance?

    Following discussions with my colleague Professor Don Brothwell of the University of York, one of the specialists who examined him, the distribution of the tattooed dots and small crosses on his lower spine and right knee and ankle joints correspond to areas of strain-induced degeneration, with the suggestion that they may have been applied to alleviate joint pain and were therefore essentially therapeutic. This would also explain their somewhat 'random' distribution in areas of the body which would not have been that easy to display had they been applied as a form of status marker.

    What is the evidence that ancient Egyptians had tattoos?

    There's certainly evidence that women had tattoos on their bodies and limbs from figurines c. 4000-3500 B.C. to occasional female figures represented in tomb scenes c. 1200 B.C. and in figurine form c. 1300 B.C., all with tattoos on their thighs. Also small bronze implements identified as tattooing tools were discovered at the town site of Gurob in northern Egypt and dated to c. 1450 B.C. And then, of course, there are the mummies with tattoos, from the three women already mentioned and dated to c. 2000 B.C. to several later examples of female mummies with these forms of permanent marks found in Greco-Roman burials at Akhmim.

    Humans have marked their bodies with tattoos for thousands of years. These permanent designs—sometimes plain, sometimes elaborate, always personal—have served as amulets, status symbols, declarations of love, signs of religious beliefs, adornments and even forms of punishment. Joann Fletcher, research fellow in the department of archaeology at the University of York in Britain, describes the history of tattoos and their cultural significance to people around the world, from the famous " Iceman," a 5,200-year-old frozen mummy, to today’s Maori.

    What is the earliest evidence of tattoos?

    In terms of tattoos on actual bodies, the earliest known examples were for a long time Egyptian and were present on several female mummies dated to c. 2000 B.C. But following the more recent discovery of the Iceman from the area of the Italian-Austrian border in 1991 and his tattoo patterns, this date has been pushed back a further thousand years when he was carbon-dated at around 5,200 years old.

    Can you describe the tattoos on the Iceman and their significance?

    Following discussions with my colleague Professor Don Brothwell of the University of York, one of the specialists who examined him, the distribution of the tattooed dots and small crosses on his lower spine and right knee and ankle joints correspond to areas of strain-induced degeneration, with the suggestion that they may have been applied to alleviate joint pain and were therefore essentially therapeutic. This would also explain their somewhat 'random' distribution in areas of the body which would not have been that easy to display had they been applied as a form of status marker.

    What is the evidence that ancient Egyptians had tattoos?

    There's certainly evidence that women had tattoos on their bodies and limbs from figurines c. 4000-3500 B.C. to occasional female figures represented in tomb scenes c. 1200 B.C. and in figurine form c. 1300 B.C., all with tattoos on their thighs. Also small bronze implements identified as tattooing tools were discovered at the town site of Gurob in northern Egypt and dated to c. 1450 B.C. And then, of course, there are the mummies with tattoos, from the three women already mentioned and dated to c. 2000 B.C. to several later examples of female mummies with these forms of permanent marks found in Greco-Roman burials at Akhmim.

    What function did these tattoos serve? Who got them and why?

    Because this seemed to be an exclusively female practice in ancient Egypt, mummies found with tattoos were usually dismissed by the (male) excavators who seemed to assume the women were of "dubious status," described in some cases as "dancing girls." The female mummies had nevertheless been buried at Deir el-Bahari (opposite modern Luxor) in an area associated with royal and elite burials, and we know that at least one of the women described as "probably a royal concubine" was actually a high-status priestess named Amunet, as revealed by her funerary inscriptions.

    And although it has long been assumed that such tattoos were the mark of prostitutes or were meant to protect the women against sexually transmitted diseases, I personally believe that the tattooing of ancient Egyptian women had a therapeutic role and functioned as a permanent form of amulet during the very difficult time of pregnancy and birth. This is supported by the pattern of distribution, largely around the abdomen, on top of the thighs and the breasts, and would also explain the specific types of designs, in particular the net-like distribution of dots applied over the abdomen. During pregnancy, this specific pattern would expand in a protective fashion in the same way bead nets were placed over wrapped mummies to protect them and "keep everything in." The placing of small figures of the household deity Bes at the tops of their thighs would again suggest the use of tattoos as a means of safeguarding the actual birth, since Bes was the protector of women in labor, and his position at the tops of the thighs a suitable location. This would ultimately explain tattoos as a purely female custom.

    Who made the tattoos?

    Although we have no explicit written evidence in the case of ancient Egypt, it may well be that the older women of a community would create the tattoos for the younger women, as happened in 19th-century Egypt and happens in some parts of the world today.

    What instruments did they use?

    It is possible that an implement best described as a sharp point set in a wooden handle, dated to c. 3000 B.C. and discovered by archaeologist W.M.F. Petrie at the site of Abydos may have been used to create tattoos. Petrie also found the aforementioned set of small bronze instruments c. 1450 B.C.—resembling wide, flattened needles—at the ancient town site of Gurob. If tied together in a bunch, they would provide repeated patterns of multiple dots.

    These instruments are also remarkably similar to much later tattooing implements used in 19th-century Egypt. The English writer William Lane (1801-1876) observed, "the operation is performed with several needles (generally seven) tied together: with these the skin is pricked in a desired pattern: some smoke black (of wood or oil), mixed with milk from the breast of a woman, is then rubbed in.... It is generally performed at the age of about 5 or 6 years, and by gipsy-women.”

    What did these tattoos look like?

    Most examples on mummies are largely dotted patterns of lines and diamond patterns, while figurines sometimes feature more naturalistic images. The tattoos occasionally found in tomb scenes and on small female figurines which form part of cosmetic items also have small figures of the dwarf god Bes on the thigh area.

    What were they made of? How many colors were used?

    Usually a dark or black pigment such as soot was introduced into the pricked skin. It seems that brighter colors were largely used in other ancient cultures, such as the Inuit who are believed to have used a yellow color along with the more usual darker pigments.

    What has surprised you the most about ancient Egyptian tattooing?

    That it appears to have been restricted to women during the purely dynastic period, i.e. pre-332 B.C. Also the way in which some of the designs can be seen to be very well placed, once it is accepted they were used as a means of safeguarding women during pregnancy and birth.

    Can you describe the tattoos used in other ancient cultures and how they differ?

    Among the numerous ancient cultures who appear to have used tattooing as a permanent form of body adornment, the Nubians to the south of Egypt are known to have used tattoos. The mummified remains of women of the indigenous C-group culture found in cemeteries near Kubban c. 2000-15000 B.C. were found to have blue tattoos, which in at least one case featured the same arrangement of dots across the abdomen noted on the aforementioned female mummies from Deir el-Bahari. The ancient Egyptians also represented the male leaders of the Libyan neighbors c. 1300-1100 B.C. with clear, rather geometrical tattoo marks on their arms and legs and portrayed them in Egyptian tomb, temple and palace scenes.

    The Scythian Pazyryk of the Altai Mountain region were another ancient culture which employed tattoos. In 1948, the 2,400 year old body of a Scythian male was discovered preserved in ice in Siberia, his limbs and torso covered in ornate tattoos of mythical animals. Then, in 1993, a woman with tattoos, again of mythical creatures on her shoulders, wrists and thumb and of similar date, was found in a tomb in Altai. The practice is also confirmed by the Greek writer Herodotus c. 450 B.C., who stated that amongst the Scythians and Thracians "tattoos were a mark of nobility, and not to have them was testimony of low birth.”

    Accounts of the ancient Britons likewise suggest they too were tattooed as a mark of high status, and with "divers shapes of beasts" tattooed on their bodies, the Romans named one northern tribe "Picti," literally "the painted people."

    Yet amongst the Greeks and Romans, the use of tattoos or "stigmata" as they were then called, seems to have been largely used as a means to mark someone as "belonging" either to a religious sect or to an owner in the case of slaves or even as a punitive measure to mark them as criminals. It is therefore quite intriguing that during Ptolemaic times when a dynasty of Macedonian Greek monarchs ruled Egypt, the pharaoh himself, Ptolemy IV (221-205 B.C.), was said to have been tattooed with ivy leaves to symbolize his devotion to Dionysus, Greek god of wine and the patron deity of the royal house at that time. The fashion was also adopted by Roman soldiers and spread across the Roman Empire until the emergence of Christianity, when tattoos were felt to "disfigure that made in God's image" and so were banned by the Emperor Constantine (A.D. 306-373).

    We have also examined tattoos on mummified remains of some of the ancient pre-Columbian cultures of Peru and Chile, which often replicate the same highly ornate images of stylized animals and a wide variety of symbols found in their textile and pottery designs. One stunning female figurine of the Naszca culture has what appears to be a huge tattoo right around her lower torso, stretching across her abdomen and extending down to her genitalia and, presumably, once again alluding to the regions associated with birth. Then on the mummified remains which have survived, the tattoos were noted on torsos, limbs, hands, the fingers and thumbs, and sometimes facial tattooing was practiced.

    With extensive facial and body tattooing used among Native Americans, such as the Cree, the mummified bodies of a group of six Greenland Inuit women c. A.D. 1475 also revealed evidence for facial tattooing. Infrared examination revealed that five of the women had been tattooed in a line extending over the eyebrows, along the cheeks and in some cases with a series of lines on the chin. Another tattooed female mummy, dated 1,000 years earlier, was also found on St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea, her tattoos of dots, lines and hearts confined to the arms and hands.

    Evidence for tattooing is also found amongst some of the ancient mummies found in China's Taklamakan Desert c. 1200 B.C., although during the later Han Dynasty (202 B.C.-A.D. 220), it seems that only criminals were tattooed.

    Japanese men began adorning their bodies with elaborate tattoos in the late A.D. 3rd century.

    The elaborate tattoos of the Polynesian cultures are thought to have developed over millennia, featuring highly elaborate geometric designs, which in many cases can cover the whole body. Following James Cook's British expedition to Tahiti in 1769, the islanders' term "tatatau" or "tattau," meaning to hit or strike, gave the west our modern term "tattoo." The marks then became fashionable among Europeans, particularly so in the case of men such as sailors and coal-miners, with both professions which carried serious risks and presumably explaining the almost amulet-like use of anchors or miner's lamp tattoos on the men's forearms.

    What about modern tattoos outside of the western world?

    Modern Japanese tattoos are real works of art, with many modern practioners, while the highly skilled tattooists of Samoa continue to create their art as it was carried out in ancient times, prior to the invention of modern tattooing equipment. Various cultures throughout Africa also employ tattoos, including the fine dots on the faces of Berber women in Algeria, the elaborate facial tattoos of Wodabe men in Niger and the small crosses on the inner forearms which mark Egypt's Christian Copts.

    What do Maori facial designs represent?

    In the Maori culture of New Zealand, the head was considered the most important part of the body, with the face embellished by incredibly elaborate tattoos or ‘moko,’ which were regarded as marks of high status. Each tattoo design was unique to that individual and since it conveyed specific information about their status, rank, ancestry and abilities, it has accurately been described as a form of id card or passport, a kind of aesthetic bar code for the face. After sharp bone chisels were used to cut the designs into the skin, a soot-based pigment would be tapped into the open wounds, which then healed over to seal in the design. With the tattoos of warriors given at various stages in their lives as a kind of rite of passage, the decorations were regarded as enhancing their features and making them more attractive to the opposite sex.

    Although Maori women were also tattooed on their faces, the markings tended to be concentrated around the nose and lips. Although Christian missionaries tried to stop the procedure, the women maintained that tattoos around their mouths and chins prevented the skin becoming wrinkled and kept them young; the practice was apparently continued as recently as the 1970s.

    Why do you think so many cultures have marked the human body and did their practices influence one another?

    In many cases, it seems to have sprung up independently as a permanent way to place protective or therapeutic symbols upon the body, then as a means of marking people out into appropriate social, political or religious groups, or simply as a form of self-expression or fashion statement.

    Yet, as in so many other areas of adornment, there was of course cross-cultural influences, such as those which existed between the Egyptians and Nubians, the Thracians and Greeks and the many cultures encountered by Roman soldiers during the expansion of the Roman Empire in the final centuries B.C. and the first centuries A.D. And, certainly, Polynesian culture is thought to have influenced Maori tattoos.
     


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    Comments

    I think this tattos on the ice man 's hand is cool and good looking .

    Posted by janabah cooper on February 26,2008 | 10:33AM

    This article has helped me tremendously with a paper I am writing for school regarding the history of the tattoo. It was also an interesting read!

    Posted by Anna Jares on March 1,2008 | 10:02AM

    Thank you this information it helped me with my eighth grade project to pass the grade. Thank you Smithsonian.com!

    Posted by duncan on March 9,2008 | 06:35AM

    this article helped me with a research paper i wrote...

    Posted by Jessica on March 14,2008 | 09:11AM

    Your pictures are very interesting.I homeschool so I go on this website after school for extra knalage. This article is awsom.thank you!

    Posted by casey on March 26,2008 | 11:08AM

    "Following James Cook's British expedition to Tahiti in 1769, the islanders' term "tatatau" or "tattau," meaning to hit or strike, gave the west our modern term "tattoo." The marks then became fashionable among Europeans, particularly so in the case of men such as sailors and coal-miners, with both professions which carried serious risks and presumably explaining the almost amulet-like use of anchors or miner's lamp tattoos on the men's forearms." Not exactly correct: tattoos did not become "fashionable" following Cook's expedition. In fact, there is plenty of evidence to show tattoos of various kinds (some of them rather elaborate) were common among various socio-economic groups (sailors, soldiers, indentured servants, and even Negro slaves) both in Britain and the American Colonies long before Cook traveled to the South Seas. For example, a simple search through colonial Philadelphia newspapers revealed reports of tattooing going back at least as far as 1732--fully 40 years before Cook's voyages.

    Posted by Mark Jaeger on March 27,2008 | 03:52PM

    I have been doing tattoo work for my friends and I for some time now ,but never did I happen to think about whare it came from or how long tattooing has been around,until now I have been attending collage and I have a writing assignment and I decided to wright my paper on tattooing ,Althoe I am not sure how to wright this paper ,this was real informative

    Posted by Randy McIe on March 31,2008 | 12:17PM

    The hand is scary and pretty.

    Posted by Weiner on April 7,2008 | 08:46AM

    wow this really helped.

    Posted by Kelly on April 7,2008 | 08:54AM

    this cite was amazing. i learned so much. wow i get so much infor for my essay. hands down to this cite

    Posted by jodi on April 11,2008 | 07:02PM

    hi there, i'm a tattooer from new zealand and will be tattooing a mauritian man in a couple of months, he has examples of his grandmothers tattoos but no meanings as she was tattooed too young to understand, i wont be tattooing him unless i can find examples and meanings to mauritian designs and i was wondering if i could get any feedback, maybe with internet links or articles...? much appreciated.

    Posted by calen paris on April 28,2008 | 07:33PM

    we'd like to hear more about tatoo removal, and up and coming erasible ink?

    Posted by Mac McGee on May 2,2008 | 10:35AM

    These tattoos are horrible! The top of the hand was stretched way too much, causing blowouts, and the ink has fallen out of the ring finger completely, probably due to overworking of the area. This was definitely not done in a professional tattoo shop environment.

    Posted by Josh on June 24,2008 | 04:32PM

    I don't understand how the tattoos can be used for easing joint pain considering that tattoos only go down as deep as one to two layers of skin. There are seven layers of skin. How would this possibly help joints and arthritis?

    Posted by Wade on July 6,2008 | 04:59PM

    Uhm, to the two comments before mine... did you not notice when the article said that this hand was done during somewhere between 900 and 1350 CE... Clearly this mummified hand was not tattooed in any recent time. And to Wade... obviously we know NOW that there are 7 layers of skin and the pain we feel in our knee or hip is joint pain but back when they thought the earth was the center of the universe and that the earth was flat... they weren't quite so sure.

    Posted by Talia on July 14,2008 | 03:08PM

    This website was very helpful to me. I am writing an expository essay on tattooing and this provided much needed information. Thank you so much.

    Posted by Roszetta on July 18,2008 | 03:14PM

    I absolutely loved this article. I myself have always been facinated with the history of tattos and am very interested in how they have evolved over the years. I believe this was presented in a very educational way and that this will definately assist me in my research for one of my classes. Thanks so much for doing such a great job.

    Posted by Katey on July 18,2008 | 07:27PM

    national geographic's 1994 article on the ice princess of the pazryk peoples of the altai showed a rendering of the tattoo found on the upper arm of the lady they found there. i have put that tattoo onto grid paper and translated it into the symbol of califia, the amazon warrior/priestess who gave her name to california. after 14 years of processing by hand, 50 miles of spun cotton, around 200 lbs of wool, i and others have brought fourth a rug for california, knotted pile, all natural dyed and gifted to the people of the state. the rug is 5' x15' and was ten years on the loom.

    Posted by vicki fraser on July 20,2008 | 03:19PM

    Do we know which symbols mean what?? Is there a website with more graphics of these mummies tattoos?

    Posted by Sara Rogers on July 24,2008 | 12:15AM

    I had the same question as the person above: Where can more images of tattoos be found? Especially those predating 4000 BC?

    Posted by Marc Washington on July 28,2008 | 12:16AM

    the college and homeschool students on here should work on their spelling. tattoos are beautiful!

    Posted by jae on August 2,2008 | 09:06AM

    This is a wonderful web site, interesting and very informative, I will use this as a source of information when I do my essay paper in my final project. Thanks for the information. Sincerely, Pam Buchanan

    Posted by Pamela Buchanan on August 6,2008 | 11:33PM

    This article was a great find! It was an enormous help for my final essay for college. My essay will be on the origins of tattoos. This article gave me an idea of several places to look.

    Posted by Kimberly on August 20,2008 | 09:15PM

    I sure hope that some of the tattoo artists who commented on the article using such poor spelling check their words before they become permanent misspellings on someone's body.

    Posted by Mary on August 21,2008 | 12:56PM

    I would like to correct the author/scholars cited herein re: one important tattoo fact. Readers should know that the earliest evidence of tattooing is NOT the 5200-year-old Iceman. The earliest evidence of tattooing is some 7000+ years-old and was uncovered by paleopathologist Dr. Marvin Allison upon microscopic inspection of a mummy from Chile's Chichorro culture. This male individual was tattooed upon his upper lip with what looks to be a mustache validating the fact that cosmetic tattooing has been in vogue for millenia. Thus, South America has the longest continuous history of tattooing in the world as there are at least three indigenous groups that continue to practice the indelible art to this day.

    Posted by Tutuuq on August 24,2008 | 06:38PM

    Thanks Tutuuq for your excellent and interesting correction. I'm in love with Perú and the pre-Incan cultures there. Do you know the names of the indigenous groups still practicing tattoo today in the Andean region? I'd love to find more images and investigate further. Mils gracias!

    Posted by Markie on September 6,2008 | 09:46AM

    Tattoo bearing natives in the Visayan Island of Tacloban in the Philippines were also found by Spanish expeditions in the 1600's. They were warriors who were called by the Spaniards as "pintados" meaning painted ones. In Wikipedia it was stated that "the name “pintados” is derived from what the native warriors, whose bodies were adorned with tattoos, were called. In those times, and even in some places today, tattoos were a mark of courage and beauty. Since tattoo-making was not yet as precise as it is today, they were rather painful and one risked the chance of contracting an infection. Therefore, a man who faced the dangers of tattooing and lived was considered to be both strong and brave. But even before the tattoo process itself, one would have to earn them after fighting heroically in wars."

    Posted by Emmanuel Ramos on September 9,2008 | 12:15AM

    I think more "Christians" need to read this article. They're so quick to believe that tattooing is "defiling the body" instead of seeing it as something beautiful. I don't know what they base they're beliefs on, but thank you for providing us with enough information to make an informed decision. It gives us who are thinking about taking the leap something to think about. It's good to know that tattooing preceeds Jesus by about 3000 years. So, how do we know Jesus didn't have tattoos? The bible doesn't say he did...but it doesn't say he didn't either!

    Posted by Christine on September 11,2008 | 12:28PM

    In reply to Christine, check out Leviticus 19:28 that says specifically (God's words, not mine), "You shall not make any cuttings in your flesh for the dead nor print or TATTOO any marks upon you; I am the Lord." Since "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word WAS God . . ." (ref. John 1:1,2) - you can read the rest of the chapter for yourself - since Jesus was without sin, I doubt that he would have done what His Word specifically calls profane. I think that if more people would find out what the Word of God says instead of speculating through the filter of what they want it to say, we would do a lot better in living fulfilled lives. Jesus said he came to give life abundantly. All we have to do is receive it:) In love,

    Posted by A Voice Crying in the Desert on September 14,2008 | 10:54AM

    To comment on the posting just above mine, you are correct in that Leviticus19:28 does say not to mark your body; however, some think that it is translated to indicate prohibition of tattoos to support Christian beliefs. If God can not forgive a tattoo on one's body, how can we be certain that he would forgive other, "sins" if you will? I am a Christian woman with tattoos and I know that the Jesus I serve, LOVES me, with or without my tattoos. As children and believers of Christ we must open our hearts to all peoples, from all ethnic origins, believes, and backgrounds, or we can not call ourselves Christians? Any translation, from any book, can be perceived the way the reader whats to perceive it, for their own purpose. One might take that translation a step further and say, " We must walk, not run, least we fall and scar our body"? Please do not think that I do not agree with you, I am only opening the door for critical thinking?

    Posted by Sonja on September 21,2008 | 05:48PM

    To add to the previous three postings above mine: I am also a believer; reformed, orthodox and evangelical to put a label upon myself if you will. It is true that the Torah - Old Testament Scripture - specifically Leviticus 19:28 explicitly forbids tatooing. You must be careful to remember the historical context of those laws all 631 of them. These were given to the Hebrews descendants of Abraham to "mark" and "seperate" the Israelites from the surrounding cultures as holy and seperate to the LORD. YHWH. These were meant to be cultural and spiritual distictives to give a clear delineation between Israel and everyone else. Under the New Testament Jesus the Messiah has issued a new covenant with the human race and we are under grace and not law. The law was meant to be our teacher showing how impossible it is for us to attain perfection based upon God's requirements. The Council of Jerusalem decided in the first century that for gentiles entering the sect of the Nazarene (which is what the Jews called early Christians - that appellation first appeared in Antioch) they were to abstain from sexual immorality, abstain from eating meat offered unto idols and abstain from eating meat with the blood still in it. That is it. Jesus famously asked a lawyer 'what is the greatest commandment?' the lawyer answered him saying' it is to love the LORD thy God with all your heart, soul, mind and strength,. Jesus said 'you have answered correctly and the second greatest commandment is like unto the first - you are to love thy neighbor as yourself - on these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets.' Perfect - I love it and I can do this.

    Posted by hobbitears on September 22,2008 | 07:31AM

    This is in reference to those who use the Bible to say that God demanded we do not mark our bodies with tattoos. These rules were specific to Moses during that time only. If the entire section had been studied, we would all be in trouble. It says you are not to shave your beard or cut your hair and that farmers could not gather all their crops for themselves but rather had to leave the outer corners for poor people to gather. These are just a few of the rules stated which are obviously not enforced by many today. I was raised in a Christian home and went to a private academy where the Bible was studied. I have seen too many people take the Bible and use it out of context. It is ridiculous.

    Posted by Kim on October 10,2008 | 11:00PM

    I'm doing an expository essay on the history of tattoos for college. I want to show just because you have tattoos that your not a bad person. The information here is outstanding.It should help me with my essay very much.

    Posted by Linda on October 22,2008 | 04:50PM

    This article helped me a lot with a paper I had to do for one of my classes. It is also a personal interest of mine. This article taught me alot.

    Posted by Sheena on October 23,2008 | 07:42PM

    Awesome article. Very helpful in a research paper that I am writing for a college course regarding Tattoos and their history. Thank you Smithsonian!

    Posted by Jessica and CK on October 26,2008 | 07:51PM

    home-schooler, please learn how to spell in American English I am tattooed and appreciate the article, very informative and well researched.

    Posted by lynn v on November 1,2008 | 03:36PM

    I actually have a couple of the tattoos that were on the Iceman. I didn't place them in the original positions, mainly because I didn't want tramp stamps, but on my inner left forearm. They are great conversation starters, and it is nice to know that I am associated with the history of this ancient art.

    Posted by Chuck on November 6,2008 | 10:56PM

    Just a quick comment on all the Bible talk. Please do some research on the terms translated unto the Bible, for example the term tattoo. As I understand this term came from the word tattau, from a culture studied and doccumented circa the 1700's. So... how exactly did this word make its way to a document thousands of years older? It did not, it was adjusted to suit specific needs mainly from the Catholic church, where the original translation of "...shalt not make markings upon your skin..." fell short. A sharpie drawing on my arm is a marking upon my skin and I highly doubt that God would be too upset about it. As often said by theologists the words (in the Bible) are to be interpreted, not manipulated... so dont.

    Posted by Manuel on November 10,2008 | 09:24PM

    The growing cultural acceptance of tattooing is just another area in which Western traditions are giving way to global barbarism. Our generation rebelled against the faith of our fathers. Now our children deface their bodies and neglect their grammar and spelling. The way things are going, we'll end up hunched over fires built of worthless Treasury bonds, gnawing the shin-bones of former hedge-fund managers and baying at the moon.

    Posted by Dave on November 12,2008 | 11:38PM

    That is amazing that even well before this time tattoos were a part of the history and culture of the early peoples. It would be funny if you found a mummy with a tattoo that read "Thug Life"! Now that I would like to see! Also I read where the tattoos of the "Ice Man" were possibly used for medicinal purposes and align with pressure points in the body! Interesting that's for sure. If you want to see some really bad tattoos check out my blog http://www.tattooshopsupply.com/the_tattoo_blog

    Thanks!

    Posted by jeremiah on November 14,2008 | 01:37AM

    this has told me so much of what i've needed to know because every other website has hardly told me about the ancient tattoo eqiutment

    Posted by apple on November 26,2008 | 01:19PM

    Very...very informative...Thank you

    Posted by Nancy Johnson on November 28,2008 | 04:49PM

    This article was so helpful for my research paper and a very interesting read! Thank you Smithsonian!!!

    Posted by Cristina Kovach on December 5,2008 | 08:59PM

    This article and some other articles will be useful to me for an expository essay that I am doing for a course in college. Thanks. I am also using it to eavaluate web sources, which is another project for my class.

    Posted by Cyndi Streeter on December 19,2008 | 02:07PM

    As others have said, the prohibition against tattoos(marking yourself by dyes/cutting, whatnot) in the Old Testament no longer applies to present-day Christians who are under the New Testament, and the New Law. Christians have tattooed themselves throughout the ages- see Crusader tattoos from Jerusalem, and the hand/wrist tattoos of Coptic Christians. As long as you don't write anything blasphemous on yourself, you're good to go. Val (Christian, designing-a-tattoo, and literate former homeschooler)

    Posted by Val on January 14,2009 | 06:21PM

    I, personally, don't care for tattoos and I know that the Bible teaches against them, but the subject is interesting. I think in talking to a child about the subject today, it might help to have the history because it reaffirms, "There is nothing new under the sun," people have been tattooing for centuries. Therefore it isn't really "cool" or "rebellious," so maybe we can just skip it.

    Posted by Laura Goad on February 7,2009 | 09:04PM

    To the person who posted above me (Laura). I think it is great to inform and educate people, especially children. You should be educating with the goal that they are well enough informed to make their own decision. I would have to say that you read this article, but did you really get anything out of it if you still think people tattoo themselves to be 'cool' or 'rebellious'. As this article pointed out, people have tattoos for a variety of reasons, some even being religious.

    Posted by Kristine on February 9,2009 | 08:06AM

    i'm doing my graduation project on tattoos and this is helping alot...it helped filter out some of the junk websites and some of the useless info... thanks

    Posted by Amanda on March 4,2009 | 09:54AM

    I see there are several who have posted that came to this site for researching essays for school. I am also doing the same thing and would appreciate any information about other similar sites. I love tattoos and chose this subject for personal reasons. I proudly wear 18 tattoos.

    Posted by MYRA on March 15,2009 | 07:47PM

    I am a (home-schooled!) Christian teenager and couldn't resist pitching in my two cents here. While Leviticus does say not to wear tattoos, that was in the Old Testament, when humankind still had to make sacrifices and follow a certain code to atone for their sins. Christians now follow the new law established when Jesus sacrificed himself. :) I'm no theologian, so I could be leaving out a few points, but my main point is that while tattoos were wrong in the Old Testament era, they aren't any more. Also, the type of "mark" referred to is unclear; and I seriously doubt God will strike me down with lightning if I accidentally get marker on my thumb. XD May I add that I disagree with those who say tattooing is "rebellious" or "cool." From what I've seen of other teens, getting a tattoo does not really earn that reputation. -Kyra B.

    Posted by Kyra on March 20,2009 | 01:03PM

    I'm student an Castle View High School Colorado, and I'm doing a project for school and this web sight has helped me so much it has had the answers to every question I have had about tattoos.

    Posted by shelby lynn on April 8,2009 | 11:05AM

    Thank you for putting this on your website, I was having trouble finding reliable sources (my art teacher is very strict on the websites) on tattoos and I am so I found this. Arigato.

    Posted by Grace on April 16,2009 | 05:48PM

    ohmygash this article has helped me so much on my 8th grade research report im doing, its not boring at all

    thanks so much(:

    Posted by melia on April 19,2009 | 12:56PM

    Thanks so much for having this article posted on your site. It was very useful in conducting research for my essay assignment for my college course. I found it to be very informative as well as interesting and educational.

    Posted by Mike on April 24,2009 | 02:31PM

    I am yet another college student doing an essay on tattoos in ancient cultures, and I found this to be wonderfully informative. It has definitely jump started my thesis on primitive cultures using tattoos for religious and ritualistic purposes. Thanks!

    Posted by Kayla on April 28,2009 | 03:31PM

    I am a college student working on a essay on tattoos and their history, this article is very helpful and is full of good information. Now I have a good start on my essay. Thanks

    Posted by rich on May 1,2009 | 08:35AM

    fascinating! hope i can include a lot of info from here in my paper!

    Posted by Aubrey on May 2,2009 | 01:36PM

    I'm doing a HUGE project for English class, and this article is my best resource!

    Posted by Ryan on May 6,2009 | 06:01AM

    Just out of curiosity, someone had pointed out to me a scripture. - But the Lord said to him, "Not so; if anyone kills Cain, he will suffer vengeance seven times over." Then the Lord put a mark on Cain so that no one who found him would kill him. Genesis 4:15 - Now, I have heard people speculate that this "mark" meant a tattoo of some sort. Anyone have any comments on this?

    Posted by Cindy on May 7,2009 | 02:09PM

    I found this information to be very helpful when it comes to writing my expository essay for my college class. As others have stated,I agree that this website is very informative, and credible. I have tattoos myself, and wanted to include how far back as possible, the history on tattoos. Thanks so much.

    Posted by Holly on May 11,2009 | 12:13AM

    I am also a student. I am working on an expository essay regarding cultural differences in tattoos and piercing. This article was well written and provided valuable information. To all the other students here working on this type of essay... do you have any other references that are informative that you could share?

    Posted by sarah on June 16,2009 | 02:03AM

    As well as Sarah, I am writing an Expository essay on the Same Exact Subject! If anyone can give me any more information on this subject please email me with sites or resources. Thank you.

    Kgrogan4@triad.rr.com

    Posted by Katie G on June 25,2009 | 09:02PM

    hi I', doing an essay on tattoos in ancient cultures and founs tour article most helpful.

    thank you, sandra

    Posted by sandra on June 28,2009 | 08:54PM

    This was a very interesting article to read. I feel that is going to be a big help in my expository essay I am writing.
    Thanks!

    Posted by Jennifer on July 20,2009 | 05:28PM

    Hello I too am looking for creditable sources for an expository essay and found a lot of information at this site. If anyone has any more information on this subject please email me at darlaholbert@aol.com I'm in my third week of classes and this was a interesting subject for me, and since beginning this search it has really become interesting.

    Posted by Darla on July 23,2009 | 12:01PM

    I find this article to be very helpful in my research for an expository essay that I am working on. I also find it quite amazing that so many of us students are writing expository essays on different aspects of tattoo's and body piercings. Good Luck to all with their respective essays.

    Posted by Tameka Street on July 31,2009 | 10:01AM

    The term used in the Bible was not originally "Tattoo". While it is not know what the exact translation should be, the term deals with a marking of the body (Lev 19:28). This site is very informative but it does not tell of the ancient custom of cutting one's skin/body as was common during pagan rituals. If you examine the biblical text, you will find the comments concerning "marks on the body" (later translated tattoo) is sandwiched between verses 26 and 29,31 all dealing with pagan religious practices (which includes the cutting of the hair Deut 14:1).
    We see this practice played out in 1 Kings chaper 28.
    There are also numerous ancient texts associating this practice with pagan worship.
    Jonathan
    Thank you for the opportunity to participate.

    Posted by Jonathan Kubis on August 2,2009 | 02:38PM

    I am also like many others on this page, trying to find out moreon tattoos for an expository essay and need more crediable sources. I love that I have found this one and have used it for most of my research, but will need more. Please if anyone has any more ideas please email me at estep.mandy@hotmail.com. Or if you just have plain interset in this topic for personal resson as I do. Thank You Mandy L. Estep

    Posted by Mandy Estep on August 3,2009 | 04:04PM

    I, as well, am working on an expository essays concerning the history of tattooing and need credible sources.This article is fantastic. Gives a lot of background information and can help tremedously with my paper. The information provided will assist me greatly through my research.

    Posted by Shanti Gales on August 21,2009 | 07:28PM

    I'm a grandmother and have a tattoo. Something I'd wanted since I was a child. There are numerous reasons for wanting or not wanting a tattoo. Go with your feelings wether based on religion, culture,beauty or desire. The choice is yours and to each his own.And it's not something I think about all of the time.

    Posted by Martha DePriest on August 31,2009 | 02:34PM

    Ito, am a college student, preparing information for my final in Expository Essay Writing; I found this sight to be informative and really quiet interesting; one other sight was at designboom.com; some pretty cool stuff on it as well. To all of you doing your essays on tattoo's or whatever else, Good luck!! jeanne big-bird62@live.com

    Posted by jeanne wright on September 3,2009 | 08:53PM

    I am doing Tattoos for my expository essay topic and was wondering if you can email me all the history of Tattoos. I would like to know some helpful websites if you know of any please email me the links.
    Thank You

    Posted by Michael Byrne on September 4,2009 | 05:14PM

    i am also doing an expository essay on tattoos, i would also like any helpful websites that would help me write a better essay on tattoo history in differnt cultures. Thank you so much

    Posted by kyle on September 12,2009 | 03:45PM

    If tatoos, the wearing or not wearing of a beard, clothing style and circumcision are seen as ways in which some tribal or ancient ethnic group distinguishes itself from neighboring groups, or is a means of creating a uniform to bind its members, then it would make sense why some groups would tatoo themselves in specific patterns, and others would ban tatoos. For example, even US marines today, informally tatoo themselves in a sign of unity, as well as 1% bikers. The tatoo serves as both an identifier, and as a ritual which psychologically, through the experience of pain, causes the individual to feel belonging to the group. The Biblical injunction against marking the body is understood by Jewish tradition, which goes back to the original rendering of the Bible, as a means of differentiating itself from tatooing which was part of Pagan ritual of its neighbors. Also, the Jewish tradition understood the injunction to be against the marking of one's body as a memorial to the dead. Even today, I have seen people put tattoos of dead relatives and dates of birth and death on themselves. To use the KJV, English translation to understand Bible verses only gives an unverstanding of the minds of people who translated the KJV. The original Hebrew text must be understood and the tradition which preserved that text must be referenced.

    Posted by Cargo Jack on September 15,2009 | 06:19AM

    So much has been said about tattoos, their origin,and what they may stand for. But a question that bugs me is, what are the changes that have accompanied the tattooing over the years. Or are they still done the same way it has been over the years?

    Posted by ola on September 24,2009 | 05:28AM

    this article has helped me write this paper about th history of tattoos

    Posted by dillon on October 1,2009 | 02:17PM

    THank you@!!!

    Posted by on October 5,2009 | 09:40AM

    I found this article to be an amazing read. I've also included it as a reference for my Expository Essay Final Project for Axia College.

    Posted by Julie on October 13,2009 | 08:58AM

    Yes,for long time I were searching this kind of article,because I am very interesting to wear a tattoo something valuable and meaningful to expose my self.If there is any worthful photos pls,be kind enough to send me.
    Thank you,
    RAVI

    Posted by S.RAVICHANDRAN on October 14,2009 | 08:24AM

    I have to write a paper on the history and dangers of tattoos and body piercings. If you could share any credible useful information I would greatly appriciate any assistance you could offer. Thanks Berta

    Posted by Roberta Hall on October 22,2009 | 08:36PM

    I desided to write my final project on the history of tattoos, I found this site VERY interesting and I feel it will help me understand the importance and history that tattooing has become! Thank You!

    Posted by Jennifer Hansen on October 27,2009 | 08:06AM

    I was wondering if you have any crediable sources on the History of Tattoos, I am writting and Expository Essay, and I have found this site to be very helpful so far.

    Posted by Jennifer on October 27,2009 | 08:16AM

    I really enjoy learning about mummies and tattoos, so this was like the best way to bring both together and get a deeper understanding about their origins. i hav to make a speech on why i think tattoos are a good thing, and i think the info i recieve from reading this article really helps. thank you all so much!!!!! :)

    Posted by Kay West on October 28,2009 | 07:47AM

    There sure are some strange people commenting on this board... why is it that everyone used this for an "essay" or school project and then commented about it?

    Posted by zach on November 7,2009 | 10:15AM

    I am going to be completely honest when I say that before reading this article I thought tattoos were worthless, and they didn't serve much of a purpose other than create permanent ink stains on an otherwise beautiful human being. After reading this article, I am truly in a different state of mind about tattoos. It is funny how things that we despise, or things we think are worthless today may be of incredible importance for history.

    Who knew that a mummy 2,000 years old had a tattoo? I had no idea. I find it incredibly fascinating.

    Posted by Nathan Pruitt on November 11,2009 | 08:21PM

    To Roberta above, who wanted to know how the tattooing process has changed over the years: I know some ancient cultures used soot and reeds, some would use a hooked multi-pointed bone to stab simultaneously (Polynesian), then smear dyes in. I don't remember exactly how, but Egyptians of course had the most sanitary method. In jails is probably pretty authentic to the way it used to be a couple of hundred years ago for the sailors (cut, pour ink). Even a month behind, I hope this helps you or someone else doing a paper ;)

    Posted by Pam on November 19,2009 | 07:38PM

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