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When Katrina Browne discovered that her New England ancestors, the DeWolfs, were the largest slave-trading family in U.S. history, she invited DeWolf descendents to retrace the Triangle Trade route and confront this legacy. Traces of the Trade: A Story from the Deep North, which airs June 24 on the PBS film series P.O.V., follows their journey and documents the North's intimate relationship with slavery. Browne's cousin Thomas DeWolf has also written a book about the trip, Inheriting the Trade: A Northern Family Confronts Its Legacy as the Largest Slave-Trading Dynasty in U.S. History. This year is the bicentennial of the federal abolition of the slave trade.
How did you first find out about your family's history and why did you want to make a film about it?
I was in seminary in my late 20s—I was 28-years-old—and I got a booklet that my grandmother sent to all her grandchildren. She was 88 and coming to the end of her life and wondering if her grandkids actually knew anything about their family history—whether they cared. She was conscientious enough to put in a couple sentences about the fact that our ancestors were slave traders. It hit me incredibly hard when I read those sentences. I probably would have just treated the whole thing as my problem to reckon with on my own with my family, privately, if I hadn't come across a book by historian Joanne Pope Melish called Disowning Slavery. She traced the process whereby the northern states conveniently forgot that slavery was a huge part of the economy.
Slavery itself existed in New England for over 200 years. History books leave most of us with the impression that because it was abolished in the North before the South, it was as if it never happened in the North, that we were the good guys and abolitionists and that slavery was really a Southern sin. That book made me realize what I had done with my own amnesia, and my family's amnesia was really parallel to this much larger regional dynamic.
That's what inspired me to make this film—that showing me and my family grappling with it would give other white Americans an opportunity to think and talk about their own intimate feelings, wherever their family history may lie, and that it would also set Americans straight about the history.
What did you find out about how and why the DeWolfs first got into the trade?
They were sailors and worked their way up to being slave ship captains. People typically would buy shares in slave ships and become part owners, and if you were successful you became a full owner. It was really [James DeWolf] who became extremely successful. He had a number of sons who all were in the slave trade. That's how it really became a dynasty—three generations in 50 years.
How did they use the Triangle Route, from Rhode Island to Ghana to Cuba and back?
In the late 18th century rum became a commodity that was in demand—it rose to the top as a commodity of interest on the West African coast as part of the slave trade. So more and more rum distilleries were built in Rhode Island and Massachusetts. The DeWolfs had a rum distillery—they would take rum to West Africa, they would trade it for people and then bring those captured Africans to, most frequently, Cuba and Charleston, South Carolina, but also to other Caribbean ports and other Southern states. In Cuba, they also owned sugar and coffee plantations. The molasses from the sugar plantations was a key ingredient for the rum-making. They had an auction house in Charleston, and they developed their own insurance company and bank.
Your family wasn't the only Northern family involved in this trade. How widespread was the practice and how did it impact the North's economy?
It would probably come as a surprise to most people that Rhode Island, despite being the smallest state in the country, was actually the largest slave-trading state in terms of the number of Africans brought on ships leaving from Rhode Island ports. The ships were often built by Massachusetts ship builders. The rope, the sails, the shackles, the other commodities were traded in addition to rum. Connecticut had a lot of farms, and a large portion of the commodities cultivated for trade were sent to [the West Indies]. The islands were typically turned into one-crop islands, where you turned all the land into sugar, tobacco, coffee—these commodities that were in demand. They weren't growing as much food [on the islands], so the food would be brought from Connecticut.
People may be surprised to learn that your family and others continued the trade well past when it was made illegal, in 1808. How were they able to do that?
Prior to 1808, various states passed laws outlawing the slave trade, but they weren't enforced practically at all. The DeWolfs and pretty much everyone else traded up until it was federally abolished in 1808. Thomas Jefferson was president at the time and he proposed they should close the trade. After 1808 a lot of people did quit the trade, including James DeWolf, but his nephew decided to ignore even that law, and he continued to trade until about 1820—at that point it became a capital offense, where you could be executed. It's interesting to think about how possible it was to be doing something that was not only completely immoral, but also illegal, and get away with it. With their Cuban slave-trading buddies they would sell one of their ships to one of their buddies for a dollar, and then it would be going around the triangle with the Cuban flag on it, and then they'd buy it back.
What an improtant topic to talk about. It is easy to talk about the slave trade in abstract terms but for this family they found out how close to them it was. A few years back I was voulunteering at a medical clinic in rural Ghana, before I flew out, along with some other volunteers I met, we spent a few days in Cape Coast during Panafest and visited Elmina and Cape Coast Castle. Being a young white female I never could truly grasp what the slave trade meant. It was movies, books, and stories, but standing in those rooms and seeing where they kept the slaves, it was such a sobering experience. It makes the hair on your arms stand up and your heart feel things it has never imagined. Looking into the eyes of the African American travelers there, I could only begin to imagine what they felt. I will will never forget this, and us as americans should never forget our past.
Posted by Melinda S Grymes on June 21,2008 | 07:15AM
They could not have put the Cuban flag in the ships,Cuba did not have one until after it became independent in 1902.
Posted by Margaret Duran on June 25,2008 | 12:22PM
Wow! What a story and a brave woman (Katrina Browne). As a High School teacher for over 35 years, I still have a difficult time accepting the fact that human beings could have conceived and actually put into practice such a horrendous system as African slavery. I also find it interesting that after reading this story, the only comment one reader made was in reference to the date of the Cuban flag.
Posted by Carl M. Overton Jr. on June 26,2008 | 01:50PM
I am very sorry that slavery ever occurred. I am the descendant of both abolitionists and slave-owners, and according to my cousin Sharron's research, very possibly from a few slaves as well. However, I cannot apologize for what my slave-owning ancestors did; I wasn't there and didn't do it, and their victims likewise are long dead. In fact, for that same reason I cannot and will not apologize for anything any of my ancestors ever did, at any time and for any reason. To use our past as a political ploy to obtain "affirmative action" or even "reparations" for some of the slaves' descendants is trying to use one wrong to right another. As black and white families continue to intermarry (a process my own family is actively involved in), America will become within a few generations a nation of brown people with mixed descent from Europeans, Africans, Native Americans, and folks from every other spot on the planet. It won't be possible in most cases to say someone is one thing only ethnically. Maybe that will finally lay the nonsense of "race" into a long-overdue grave.
Posted by Patrick Buck on June 27,2008 | 01:26PM
I was reading a post from Patrick Buck and I could not help but respond to his comments quoted below. " I cannot apologize for what my slave-owning ancestors did; I wasn't there and didn't do it, and their victims likewise are long dead". You sir for better or worse have received the benefits of a slave society. During slavery, it was very rare for a slave to own property or a business. Your forefathers were able to come into this country up until the late 1960's. Earn a good living, vote, own property, education,etc. and to hand down legacy. The victims of your ancestors continue to harbor self hate. Still they are not fully intergrated in this society whether it be through choice and/or imposed rules and regulations like that of Country Clubs, "Private Communities" and the like. Saying "I wasn't there and didn't do it". Is how we continue to propagate the wrongs of the past. To some extent you must be able to admit that you, as well as your immediate ancestors (fathers,mothers) benefited from a JimCrow society that allowed for your education and wealth.
Posted by Gregory Johnson on June 28,2008 | 02:51PM
Great Job Katrina! This story hits close to home, where my family in Ireland was involved with the eviction and transport of poor fellow Irish countrymen from county Roscommon during the Famine Years of the 1840s and 50's. It's amazing how you can inherit guilt. It's also Ironic that RI was also the landing place for many of these displaced Irish immigrants. Good luck in considering reparations considering the time past, the current need, and funds available.
Posted by Dennis Cox on July 1,2008 | 05:32AM
"They could not have put the Cuban flag in the ships,Cuba did not have one until after it became independent in 1902. Posted by Margaret Duran on June 25,2008 | 12:22PM" Give her a break; she probably meant the Spanish flag; although now--I'm not sure what the maritime law was then--an insular dependancy or colony or protectorate can have a separate flag and maritime registry from the mother country.
Posted by BAW on July 1,2008 | 01:14PM
If you are going to make reparations to the descendants of African slaves, you must also make reparations to every other group that has suffered misfortune at the hands of another in America--Native Americans, Asians, Irish, Polish, Mormon, Catholic, Jewish. The list is unending. Then you must decide which ancestors were involved in the oppression and which descendants are culpable for those acts. Should I, from a Southern family that did not hold slaves, pay reparations to the descendants of someone else's slaves? Do I get a credit for the suffering of my Cherokee forbears and Mormon pioneers? Perhaps it would be simpler--not to mention rational--to realize that every group has experienced oppression in some way from someone and to turn our energies to guarding against it in our own modern society.
Posted by Diana Stanley on July 8,2008 | 11:11AM
my familly came to america in the first run around 1840. they escaped an indentured lifestyle. worked thier asses off. built farms without slaves. I have no others guilt or burden, and I live with no shame. leave me alone, and take responsility for you're own life. reperations are welfare for leetches and parisites
Posted by tom on July 19,2008 | 06:59PM
The Smithsonian Institute is one of our major 'griots' on African American history. For those who talk about a "political ploy for raparations",are ridiculous. We have people including myself, who went through high school and never learned about their history. But, I was required to learn US history. HELLO! All Americans,need to learn about the African American past because it is a fascinating history. However immoral and gruesome it may seem,we need to know the truth,especially,our children. This is all a part of the development of a human being. We already have a generation of children lost to drugs, prison,etc. because of not having who they are.(lost souls) The knowledge of knowing your past, makes for a better human person. We have to stop this cycle of ignorance and insecurities, and move on to being wiser and confident adults, for the sake of future generations.
Posted by history buff on July 25,2008 | 11:00AM
Reparations for the descendants of slaves. How do you accountant for the black slave HOLDERS. There were many black slave owners who owned black slaves. More than likely most black people today have ancestors from both sides. The history of black slave holders is there if you really want to know the whole history of slavery. What is all to often ignored is it was one tribe of blacks who would help the white slave traders trap another tribe of blacks. What better way to get ride of the competition or a personal enemy? The money did not hurt either. Do I receive reparations since my maternal grandmother's family is from Canada and likely aided the blacks? Sadly man kind, through the eons has a long trail of slavery. Even more repulsive is that slavery is on going today. Yet we do not hear of the current situations. Why are we so hung up about what happened in the past? If we truly are horrified about slavery why don't we do something about what is going on today? We can not change the past. It is done. We can however, try and do something about what is happening today.
Posted by Barbara on August 22,2008 | 08:19AM
i think its incredible nice job!:)
Posted by Breanna on March 17,2009 | 10:37AM